Philosophy - Can Descartes Be Certain He Is Thinking Essays

Philosophy - Can Descartes Be Certain He Is Thinking Can Descartes be certain that he is thinking? How? Can he be certain that he exists? How? (And who is he?) Descartes statement I think therefore I exist raises questions about the meaning of thought, the meaning of existence but most fundamentally, in what sense he can be certain. The difficulty in establishing the certainty of I think and I exist is that the two concepts are interrelated. Thus, for example, differing interpretations of what it is to think will have a profound impact on the question of whether Descartes can achieve the certainty of his existence. The success of his attempt to achieve certainty can be analysed in relation to how far he overcomes the universal doubt he has introduced in the first meditation. It is in this sphere of meaning that I becomes very relevant as it is possible to argue that his use of I demonstrates that his own interpretation of what is certain is partially based on intrinsically held beliefs. Williams describes the statement I think as indubitable. This is because if anyone believes he is thinking or that he exists then necessarily he has a true belief. Using the Cartesian method, the statement that I think is unique because it is the only premise that has the property of having its truth confirmed by the act of doubting it. Descartes demonstrates that he has found a statement that is not defeated by the possibility of a malicious demon when he says If I am in doubt, if I am entertaining the possibility that I might be deceived, then the very fact that I am around to entertain that doubt shows that I must exist. Thus he is already assuming that his ability to entertain doubt, or think is certain, which based on the premise above, is a not unreasonable conclusion. Before further examining his assertion that he is thinking, the question of what Descartes means by thinking must be defined. In the simplest form, possible definitions of what it is to think can be separated into wide and narrow definitions. In the second meditation, he appears to define thinking in terms of all conscious acts when he describes a thing that thinks as a thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, is willing, is unwilling and also imagines and has sensory perceptions. Williams makes the point that the translation of the Latin verb cogitare and the French verb penser have wider meaning than the English to think. They relate to any conscious state or activity. However, if Descartes definition of thought was really this broad it would need to be possible to assert that having sensory perceptions was indubitable as the ability to think. However, as he asserts in the first meditation, it is not the case to believe that I have sensory perceptions necessarily makes it a true belief. Despite this difficulty, Descartes inclusion of, among others, imagination in the above definition of thinking demonstrates that he clearly does not interpret thinking in the narrow sense of being just a cognitive act of the intellectual kind. However, as Cottingham shows, this is partially the fault of categorising the definitions of what it is to think to rigidly. When Descartes says that it is necessary to doubt, understand etc. he is actually referring to the ability to be aware of these rather than being able to control the activities in their own right. Thus the assertion that I am aware that I have sensory perceptions is as indubitable as I am aware that and is thus equated with I think. Williams describes this as Descartes willingness to sheer off purely mental experience. Thus the conclusion can be reached that thought can be defined as that of which I am immediately aware. To return to the question of how he can be certain that he has a true belief, Williams writes that Descartes certainty that he thinks is based not just on its incorrigibility, but also on its self verifying nature. If Descartes asserts I think then this must be true because the act of thinking the statement, proves it. Of course, I think is the only concept that can be self verified thinking

Caskets Of Fortune Essays - Orientalism, The Merchant Of Venice

Caskets Of Fortune Essays - Orientalism, The Merchant Of Venice Caskets Of Fortune Caskets of Fortune Word is spread, a fair maiden awaits suiters to challenge the puzzle to win her hand and marriage, and in wealth. Her father has passed away, leaving her with only a memory of him, and more dumbfounded suiters come and challenge to see if they really are the one to inherit the fortune. There are three caskets, First of gold, who this inscription bears: Who Chooseth me shall gain what many men desire, The second silver, which this promise carries: Who Chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves. This third dull lead, with warning all as blunt: Who Chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath. The suiters are The Prince of Morocco, a self absorbed sponge, The Prince of Arrogon, an arrogant and he doesnt show his true face, and finally Bassanio, a kind individual who is in debt to his friend. First we start with the Prince of Morocco, some say his name fits well with moron. He did chose the right casket for him, but he didnt chose the one that held the fair counterfeit of lady Portia. This man chose the golden casket because it is gaudy, and shows wealth in its appearance. The reason for this is because he was raised with wealth always around him, he is royalty, so everything was always given to him, and he never did anything wrong because his royalty had always covered up for it. He read the inscription on the golden casket which inscribes Who Chooseth me shall gain what many men desire. Of course his mind is set when he sees the others because he makes them look less than what they are, and gold is always higher in value, he even says A golden mind stoops not to shows of dross. (Saying his mind will never stoop lower than gold). Ill then or give nor hazard aught for lead ( He will never chose something with such low wealth as lead ). What says the silver with her virgin hue? Who Chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves : Pause there Morocco, and weigh thy value with an even hand ( so he looks at silver and gold and chooses gold because it has a rich outlook). Sadly enough Morocco chose wrong, but Portia was much pleased to see him go. I believe Morocco was right, because he talks about his golden mind and that is what he is use to always seeing the rich because he hasnt seen the hazard that life gives because riches have been able to let him avoid some of them not being in the real world and striving to get money and a decent home. Now we have the prince of Aragon claimed to have Arrogant rhyme with his name. He sees himself as a different person, he says I will not jump with common spirits ( in reality he was like the other suiter Morocco ( raised rich, and in royalty). But he is different in one way, he isnt attracted to what the gold casket inscribes because he doesnt want to be a common person and chose gold because of its appearances. So he chose right in choosing silver. But he didnt choose the casket that had Portias picture in it. This is his decision as follows, I will not choose what many men desire, because I will not jump with common spirits and rank me with the barbarous multitudes. Why then, to the, thou silver treasure house. So he ignored the base lead casket because it was mere lead, it has no value, and he ignored the gold because thats what a common man would chose. So by knocking both of those out of the competition he chose the silver, because he thinks he deserves more, and he doesnt desir e like a regular man, and he will not have hazard because he is a King. This man chose right to, because just as Morocco he was raised in riches, but what Morocco didnt have that Aragon did have was a different teaching in life, telling him he isnt like a normal man, he rises above all of them because he

Comparison and Contrast between Michelangelo and Picasso Term Paper

Comparison and Contrast between Michelangelo and Picasso - Term Paper Example The paper "Comparison and Contrast between Michelangelo and Picasso" helps to understand the contrast between two artists: Michelangelo and Picasso. Michelangelo and Picasso are two of the most popular artists in the world who belong to two different periods. Michelangelo studied anatomy to attain the perfection in form which is manifested in many of his art works. He lived during the Renaissance period, the dawning of a new cultural movement, and had produced many works. Picasso was born during the 19th century and passed away just in the 20th century. He is one of the pioneers of an art form called Cubism. Having lived in the modern times, his form and style has the influence of modernism. Many would know him as a great painter who adorned the ceiling of the Sistene Chapel. He was multi-talented, and wanted to be an engineer, builder of churches and palaces, sculptor. His devotion to his art works can be considered as extreme. While sculpting the statue for Julio II, he slept with his working clothes and boots that caused his legs to swell and had to be cut together with his flesh. He is very proud of this family and blood lineage, and his family devotion can be compared to that of a religion. Although his family had wealth, he would live and eat as if impoverished that his father warned him to take care of his health. Michelangelo received apprenticeship in art early in life. He first studied literature but later shifted to the study of the arts, and at 13 years old apprenticed under to Domenico Ghirlandaio. for three years (Michelangelo par. 1). Domenico was highly impressed with the performance of Michelangelo, and thus recommended him for tutorship under Lorenzo the Magnificent (par. 1). When he later frequented the San Marcos of Lorenze where antique statues are found, he met Pico della Mirandola (par. 1). He then studied sculptor under Donatello’s disciple, Bertoldo (par. 1). He sculpted two famous works, â€Å"The Virgin on the Stairs† an d â€Å"The Battle of the Centaurs† (par. 2). He would make study drawings before sculpting the medium (Michelangelo par. 2). Although he made earlier works, such as those from Giotto and Masaccio, as his models, his art works manifested more idealism and strong vision (par.2). In 1494, he met Aldrovandi when he moved to Bologna, and sculpted for him â€Å"Angel† for Noah`s Ark in Santo Domingo (Michelangelo par. 2). He completed the unfinished works of the early Renaissance sculptor Niccolo dell'Arca (par. 2). Going to Rome, he initially made the sculpture â€Å"Young Bacchus† (par. 2). He traveled between Florence (due to nostalgic predisposition) and Rome a number of times (par. 2). In 1501, while in Rome, banker Jacopo Galloi purchased his painting â€Å"Young Bacchus† which Cardinal S. Dionigi commissioned Michelangelo to do (par. 2). His objects traversed between profanity and sacredness which duality is manifested in his works â€Å"Bacchus† and â€Å"The Centaurs† on the one hand, and the â€Å"Pieta† and â€Å"Virgin of the Stairs† on the other (par. 2). He did â€Å"Pieta† (the only one that he affixed his signature) in 1498 from the request of French Cardinal Jean de Lagraulas (par. 2). Back in Florence (between 1501 and 1504), Michelangelo met Leonardo da Vinci where he got some inspiration (par. 2). He was not inclined to scientific inquiry like Leonardo but engaged in the study of

The responsibility of the individual to society Essay

The responsibility of the individual to society - Essay Example Each individual is saddled with the responsibility of working with other individuals of the society in order to help the society to achieve the goals and objectives of building a better world. It is through the symbiotic relationship that exists between the different individuals of the society that would guarantee the maintenance of the sovereignty of the society and the peaceful existence of each individual of the society. The law of nature has made it important for the individuals of the society to play specific roles. A notable philosopher, Antiphon stipulates that the law of Nature is based on each individual’s instinct to do things that would keep them away from danger, that is, individuals are expected to do things that are beneficial to life and naturally pleasant. The implication of this is that as individuals living in the society, they must try as much as possible to do things that are beneficial to the society. Antiphon described the adherence to the law of Nature a s the observance of the principle of self-preservation and when each individual have the instinct to do things that would keep them safe from danger, the society would also be free from danger. This law of nature must be observed by all the individuals living in the society and any attempt to evade the laws of nature would be met with dire consequences (Plato). Socrates believed that, individuals had the right to obey whichever authority, they choose to obey and that, individuals must take full responsibilities for these decisions (Walzer). This means that every individual is not under any compulsion to do things against their will. Socrates’ belief is based on the freedom of choice. Socrates’ argument is an epistemological one and the British philosopher, John Stuart Mill also belongs to this school of thought. Socrates and Mill believed that every individual have the innate ability to decide what is best for them (Walzer). Socrates believed that each individual must make attempt to discern the truth by themselves through closely controlled, self-effacing and tolerant dialogue (Walzer). Quite similar to Socrates’ arguments, Mill opined that the onus lies on the shoulders of the individual to decide what is best for him or her. According to Mill, â€Å"Justice implies something which it is not only right to do, and wrong not to do, but which some individual person can claim from us as his moral right.† (Mill par. 14). The two of them agree that people should tolerate the opinion of others as this would help in establishing the truth about a particular subject matter as the use of force or compulsion in making people accept a particular point of view is not the best pedagogical approach (Walzer). One of the founding fathers of the United States of America, Thomas Jefferson also recognizes the responsibility of the individual in a society. Jefferson spoke on how the American constitution should be interpreted and said that people shou ld be given freedom on how they observe the written laws of the constitution. He claims that the observance of the constitution is one of the obligations of each individual of the US, but it is not the most important priority, Jefferson asserts that the most important duty of every American citizen are to defend the country at all times and maintain the sovereignty of the country (Jefferson). According to Jefferson, â€Å"

The argument for the institution of a world currency Essay

The argument for the institution of a world currency - Essay Example The people who developed the theory believe barter trade being replaced by money exchange is not sufficient to determine a good monetary economy. However, barter trade is considered to be slow and cumbersome, features that are ease by money exchange system. Furthermore, the money system has changed the general functioning economic system; it has also changed the economy parties’ responsibilities. Money system has also enabled easy and fast financial analysis to certain whether the business is in a profit or loss trend. The monetary theory is known to have emerged from critics of the high class businesses evaluation, the reason being that the neo-classical interpretation mode did not consider the small business owners also called the macro-groups. The distribution theory is not well appreciated and instead a theory which recognizes banks as they provide the best payment means as well as the firms’ power since it determines the best locations of important resources. Franc e has got two major groups namely: Dijon school, headed by Bernard Schmitt together with Alvaro cencini. The main problem associated with this group is re –examination of Keynesian based economy as well as international payment analysis. The other group is headed by Alain Parguez Paris based and Francois Poulon heads the Bordeaux branch. This group faces analysis difficulties related to its levels of activities, unemployment as well policies stabilizations. The general equilibrium theory is rejected by the author of this article as its more of the barter trade theory which is considered to be technical means of exchange. The current macro-economics is also rejected due to the exogenous nature of the money stock. Origin and money nature is not well specified in the theory. The theory does not portray the banks and firms relationships instead rely on the unconvincing income distribution notion. The authors reveal further the difficulty in assessing the relationships between the circuit and the Post-Keynesian School. The limitations is associated with government deficits, the stock of money is either increased or reduced due to the transactions between the Central bank as well as Commercial banks. The circuit theory is more of the Wicksellian theory considered to be credit economy based. Circuit theory tends to replace the monetory economy due the latter inconsistency in money commodity. Money commodity can be generally defined as the kind of money which can be created by any producer for himself. Commodity money resembles the slow and cumbersome barter trade hence token money informs of paper currency has gained preference. However it is worth noting that paper currency itself is not enough to define or determine monetary based economy. For instance delivering goods to a customer who would pay later makes the buyer the debtor and you as the seller the creditor, such transaction is not monetary based but credit economy. There are three major vital conditio ns required for money based economy to exist. Money should be in token currency to limit chances of barter trade. Money should also be accepted by all parties i.e. the sellers and the buyer as a means of payment, this limits credit transactions. Agents making payments; the buyers should not be given privilege of seignorage when making payments in other words they should not lengthen their promises to pay for the goods they had earlier received. The above named conditions can only be met if payments are made as promises of an extra party apart from the buyer and seller. Banks is the third party in the modern world. For

Rousseaus Successful Responds Towards Machiavellis Arguments Philosophy Essay

Rousseaus Successful Responds Towards Machiavellis Arguments Philosophy Essay The Qualities of the Prince, the most notable treatise written by Niccolo Machiavelli in 1513, instructs the Medicis, the rulers of Italy, to save Italy from the rapacious invasion of France and Spain. In The Qualities of the Prince, Machiavelli proposes qualities that princes should acquire in order to sustain authority such as to have a balance between being feared and loved, assuming that a prince righteously possesses the power to control the people. Along with these qualities, Machiavelli also exerts his views on the properties of human nature, power, war, and the responsibilities of the leaders towards their followers. On the other hand, The Origin of Civil Society, an essay written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a significant modern philosopher, in 1762, focuses on the issue of the nature and right of man both in a natural and civilized society and thus conveys the ideas of Rousseau about what a legitimate government with a stable basis should be based on. In contrast to the belief of Machiavelli that a prince, his decisions unalterable, functions as the only commander, Rousseau claims that a government, concerning the general will (68) of the people and is elected by the people, should rule as the leader. Rousseau also asserts views opposing Machiavellis stances on war, power, human rights, and duties of the government towards its followers. Machiavelli and Rousseau formulate their ideas at different time in history with different purposes and under various social and cultural influences. Thus even though they both discuss the relationship between leaders and followers and share a few similar ideas on government, Rousseau disagrees most Machiavellis views based on war, human nature and rights, power, society, and responsibilities of the leaders. However, while Machiavelli mostly quotes historical contents to support his arguments, Rousseau uses convincing rhetorical approaches like aphorism and analogy and analyzes as well as examines closely the concepts of both the other thinkers as well as his own before coming to a reasonable conclusion. By using these methods, readers are provoked to think critically, and consequently, they accepts the ideas of Rousseau more readily than those of Machiavelli, indicating that Rousseau expresses more successful arguments than Machiavelli. To begin with, Rousseau agrees with Machiavelli that a strong government is needed in a society, but he has reservations about Machiavelli advising the prince to go to war. Machiavelli implies that a society requires a strong government through urging a prince not to take anything as his profession but war, its institutions, and its discipline (39), as Machiavelli believes that by focusing on the art of war, a strong government may be created. Rousseau approves this idea, believing that a strong government is necessary for the well-being of the people in a society. He believes that a society needs a strong government because a strong regime, guiding people to act in concert, directly leads to a powerful and cohesive association that can effectively assist people within the society in [withstanding] any resistance exerted upon them from without (67); thus, when one weaker member of the association is attacked, due to both duty and interest, the stronger individuals within the associat ion can be united to provide mutual assistance (69) against the attackers. Such actions defending members of a society against the outside powers under the guide of a strong government provides great advantage to the members of the association. Yet Rousseau does not assent that a leader should take war as his only profession (Machiavelli 39). Rousseau claims that going to war is never righteous especially when most of the times the despot is actually trying to satisfy his insatiable greed, and the vexatious demands of his Ministers instead of keeping his promise of providing civil peace to his subjects (63). As an alternative, Rousseau holds that rulers should take the common will of his people as his top priority and work to make decisions that benefit everyone in the community. While Machiavelli uses specific historical figures like Francesco Sforza and Philopoemon to support his idea that war is the most important part of a princes career, Rousseau convincingly suggests the benefit member of a society can get when a government considers the common will as its chief considerations. Rousseau maintains that if the government makes decisions according to common will, the weaker members of the society will greatly benefit fro m this action as they will receive mutual assistance (62) when being attacked from the mightier individuals with the support and guidance of the government, assuming that the common will is to defend themselves against the foreign forces for their own well-beings. This argument is more convincing than that of Machiavellis as the readers being part of the society is more closely related to the situation proposed by Rousseau but not to the historical contents Machiavelli mentions, and thus readers sympathize with Rousseaus argument more. In addition, while Machiavelli asserts that the Prince, acting as the only commander, has absolute authority over his people, and his decisions [must therefore] be irrevocable (50), Rousseau argues that being a member of a civil government that concerns the common will, every person of this association has the right to alter the decisions made by the governors or even to overthrow the existing government and establish a new one. Due to the cultural influences, Machiavelli presumes from the very beginning that every person in the country would summit themselves fully to the prince and obey his orders without questioning, thus, this leads Machiavelli to assume that people do not have the right to either choose who to rule them or decide how they are to be governed. However, Rousseau, using aphorism and analogy, makes a powerful and convincing contention against Machiavellis assumptions of common people having no say in what the ruler would do. Rousseau states at the very beginning that man is born free (59), a widely accepted aphorism increasing the persuasiveness of the argument, and later suggests that as soon as a man attains the age of reason he becomes his own master (60) given that every man deserves a condition of equal independence (59). After constituting a strong basis for his argument, Rousseau then goes on to compare the political associations to a typical family (60) with, by analogy, the ruler as the father and the people as the children. Rousseau claims that since the children are, by the law of nature, free to make decisions that will best assure [their] continued existence (60), they are vindicated to choose whether or not to keep stay at home and be controlled by their father as soon as they are independent. Consequently, Rous seau comes to a conclusion that people in a society should similarly have the right to choose whether to summit themselves to the government or to establish a new one themselves. By using the analogy of comparing the structure of a family to the political associations (60), an analogy that relates the personal lives of the readers to the government, Rousseau effectively guides the readers to thoroughly understand and agree with his points of view. This argument of Rousseau saying that the people has the right to choose who to govern is made even more convincing when Thomas Jefferson, a former Virginia governor, backs Rousseaus idea by claiming in The Declaration of Independence that it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish [any Form of Government], and to institute new Government (80). Additionally, regarding the matter of power, Rousseau rebuts Machiavellis idea that people will submit themselves fully to those who are physically mightiest. Machiavelli strongly believes that only by being armed, equivalent to be might, people would willingly summit themselves to the rulers (40). On the contrary, Rousseau maintains that yielding to physical power is a necessity but not of will (63) and therefore asserts that the act of forcing people to obey through the use of violence is not very practical as people will not surrender themselves to the mightiest person if they had the ability to get away with the orders. Rousseau successfully incites the readers to agree that might does not sustain right by presenting a hypothetical scenario and then asking the readers a provoking rhetorical question. Rousseau supposes that he is being waylaid by a footpad at the corner of a wood and is forced to give him his purse; he then asks the readers: But if I can manage to keep [my purse] from him, is it my duty to hand it over? (62) As a result, readers are actively engaged to the reading and would agree that since Rousseau is being forced in the scenario to hand over his purse, he will very likely to keep his purse away from the footpad (62) if he has the ability. Thus, the readers can conclude that Rousseau is logical when suggesting that Might does not make Right since people are most likely to find ways to escape from obeying orders when they are forced to do so with violence. In addition, by putting forward and examining closely the arguments others might present before proposing his own ideas on the issue, a convincing rhetoric approach, Rousseau has made a successful case in arguing that Might does not create Right (62). Rousseau is aware that people may claim that all power comes from God and no case will ever be found of the violation (62), suggesting that the belief of all power comes from God is generally accepted by the society at that time and no one should be allowed to go against those powers such as the mightiness of people. He therefore associates power with ailments which is also thought to have given by God, proposing that the power given by God can sometimes be faulty and disruptive, and thus encourages readers to think by asking the rhetorical questions: Are we to conclude from such an argument that we are never to call in the doctor?(62) Therefore, what Rousseau is trying to say here is that if people are able to fight against the ailment s given by God through calling in a doctor, they will also be able to rebel against the orders from the mightiest individuals, their physical power given by God, if they are forced to obey with violence. By using this clever rhetorical device, Rousseau has effectively brought out his own idea that Might does not create Right as well as drawing the readers to sympathize with him. To conclude, Machiavelli and Rousseau possess a few similar but mostly dissimilar views on the issue of government. Yet, even though they both have very distinct views on this issue, their ideas are greatly influential and are still affecting the thoughts of many modern politicians as well as inspiring many philosophers and leaders like Tomas Jefferson throughout history. By looking closely at the successful, logical and convincing arguments Rousseau made against those of Machiavellis, a clear understanding of why the society and government today behaves as Rousseau suggests can be easily obtained.

Physics and Fish Bioenergetics Essays -- physics fish bioenergetics

Welcome to the world of fish physics. Many of us understand basic fish behavior and can reach logical conclusions about where the best place to throw a fishing line is. But when we don’t think much further than that we are missing out on some very interesting details of fish behavior. We can never fully understand why we find some fish in one location and some fish in other locations until we consider the concept of fish bioenergetics. Ultimately, fish behavior is a product of bioenergetics. First, we will take a look at basic fish bioenergetics, understanding the underlying quantitative principles. Then, we will look at some examples of how physical forces, thermodynamics, and light characteristics are specifically related to fish bioenergetics. Most of these models and ideas are made under the assumption that there is no predation or competition, which are additional factors that will influence behavior. Fish bioenergetics includes components of physical forces, thermodynamics, and light characteristics, and follows energy laws and theories describing any other closed system. What it all boils down to is the net rate of energy intake. If this rate is positive a fish will grow and if it is negative then a fish will begin to undergo the stresses of losing biomass. Fish bioenergetics is really a matter of efficiency. Potential profit for a fish at any given position in a stream is simply the amount of energy coming into its system as prey minus the cost of staying at that position. This simplified model can be desribed by P = D - S where P is potential profit (calories/hour), D is available drifting invertebrate energy (calories/hr), and S is swimming cost (calories per hour) (Fausch 1984). For example, th... ...monids at different scales. Ecology 79: 281-294. Hughes, N.F., 1999. Fish ecology course, School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Mundie, J.H., 1969. Ecological implications of the diet of juvenile coho salmon in streams. Pages 135-152 in T.G. Northcote, editor. Symposium on salmon and trout in streams, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Stephens, D.W., and J.R. Krebs, 1986. Foraging theory. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. Vogel, J.L., D.A. Beauchamp, 1999. Effects of light, prey size, and turbidity on reaction distances of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) to salmonid prey. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 56: 1293-1297. Wankowski, J.W.J., 1979. Morphological limitations, prey size selectivity, and growth response of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Journal of Fish Biology. Physics and Fish Bioenergetics Essays -- physics fish bioenergetics Welcome to the world of fish physics. Many of us understand basic fish behavior and can reach logical conclusions about where the best place to throw a fishing line is. But when we don’t think much further than that we are missing out on some very interesting details of fish behavior. We can never fully understand why we find some fish in one location and some fish in other locations until we consider the concept of fish bioenergetics. Ultimately, fish behavior is a product of bioenergetics. First, we will take a look at basic fish bioenergetics, understanding the underlying quantitative principles. Then, we will look at some examples of how physical forces, thermodynamics, and light characteristics are specifically related to fish bioenergetics. Most of these models and ideas are made under the assumption that there is no predation or competition, which are additional factors that will influence behavior. Fish bioenergetics includes components of physical forces, thermodynamics, and light characteristics, and follows energy laws and theories describing any other closed system. What it all boils down to is the net rate of energy intake. If this rate is positive a fish will grow and if it is negative then a fish will begin to undergo the stresses of losing biomass. Fish bioenergetics is really a matter of efficiency. Potential profit for a fish at any given position in a stream is simply the amount of energy coming into its system as prey minus the cost of staying at that position. This simplified model can be desribed by P = D - S where P is potential profit (calories/hour), D is available drifting invertebrate energy (calories/hr), and S is swimming cost (calories per hour) (Fausch 1984). For example, th... ...monids at different scales. Ecology 79: 281-294. Hughes, N.F., 1999. Fish ecology course, School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Mundie, J.H., 1969. Ecological implications of the diet of juvenile coho salmon in streams. Pages 135-152 in T.G. Northcote, editor. Symposium on salmon and trout in streams, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Stephens, D.W., and J.R. Krebs, 1986. Foraging theory. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. Vogel, J.L., D.A. Beauchamp, 1999. Effects of light, prey size, and turbidity on reaction distances of lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) to salmonid prey. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 56: 1293-1297. Wankowski, J.W.J., 1979. Morphological limitations, prey size selectivity, and growth response of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Journal of Fish Biology.

The Growth of Tourism

International air fares are falling. More and more employers are offering holiday entitlements. Needless to say, the number of people who travel to exotic holiday destinations across the world is on the rise. The tourism industry has witnessed tremendous growth over the last few years. And it looks like it will continue this upward trend. So what are the advantages and disadvantages of this trend? The growth in the tourism sector has many advantages. In many parts of the world tourism has created more jobs than any other industry. Tourism helps countries to earn valuable foreign exchange.Tourism has also helped in the preservation of many heritage structures and art forms which would, otherwise, have died without leaving a trace. For example, many ethnic Indian dance forms would have died if they hadn’t received the patronage of foreign tourists. Tourism promotes cultural understanding. As people travel to other countries, they get an opportunity to learn about other cultures and beliefs. Intercultural understanding is always good for global harmony. On the flip side, tourism has some disadvantages too. In many countries, particularly those in the under developed world, ourism has led to the establishment of some morally questionable practices. For example, many tourist hotspots in Asia and Latin America are now synonymous with prostitution and illegal gambling. Tourist hotspots are also plagued by problems like theft, maimed begging and drug abuse. However, these disadvantages are nothing compared to the advantages and it doesn’t take a lot of efforts to see that tourism has more benefits than drawbacks. Share on print Share on facebook Share on stumbleupon Share on twitter Share on email Share on gmail More Sharing Services

Free Essays on William Blakes Songs Of Experience

William Blake’s Song of Experience The songs of William Blake are probably the most easily understood and the most important of his writing. They are a necessity in order to understand Blake. It has been said that the songs are too short, but they make up what they like in length with quality (Gillham VIII-IX). Out of its context, each song means a great deal less than Blake expected of his total invention. Occasionally, a song may be taken to mean something quite different from what he intended. The songs were not written for our enjoyment or edification alone, but instead for our salvation (Gleckner 37). When read together the Songs of Experience are a reflection of Blake’s view on life (Gillham I). The state of the Songs of Experience is expressed through selfishness, anxiety, insensitivity, and meddlesomeness. They all militate against a generous appreciation of life’s events. We assert our own interest in a way that doesn’t allow us to appreciate worldly happenings and then we are left with interests which are directed toward insignificant things. Nearly all of the Songs of Experience depict people who have defended themselves from life’s experiences without knowing it. They are assertive people who are supposed to be wise, but their assertive wisdom prevents them from being able to see. Blake often depicts experienced man as a greybeard who has lost the use of his senses. His is often lame as well. We deny ourselves a full life in many ways and reading Blake’s poems often brings home the knowledge of our ways of crippling ourselves (15-16). To some degree, we live â€Å"in disguise† because we adopt set attitudes and responses. Our world lies hidden from us because we see only what habit and convenience prepare us to find. The Songs of Experience display our minds working this way (45), and this knowledge is unfortunately accompanied by the realization that there is little we can do to change ou... Free Essays on William Blake's Songs Of Experience Free Essays on William Blake's Songs Of Experience William Blake’s Song of Experience The songs of William Blake are probably the most easily understood and the most important of his writing. They are a necessity in order to understand Blake. It has been said that the songs are too short, but they make up what they like in length with quality (Gillham VIII-IX). Out of its context, each song means a great deal less than Blake expected of his total invention. Occasionally, a song may be taken to mean something quite different from what he intended. The songs were not written for our enjoyment or edification alone, but instead for our salvation (Gleckner 37). When read together the Songs of Experience are a reflection of Blake’s view on life (Gillham I). The state of the Songs of Experience is expressed through selfishness, anxiety, insensitivity, and meddlesomeness. They all militate against a generous appreciation of life’s events. We assert our own interest in a way that doesn’t allow us to appreciate worldly happenings and then we are left with interests which are directed toward insignificant things. Nearly all of the Songs of Experience depict people who have defended themselves from life’s experiences without knowing it. They are assertive people who are supposed to be wise, but their assertive wisdom prevents them from being able to see. Blake often depicts experienced man as a greybeard who has lost the use of his senses. His is often lame as well. We deny ourselves a full life in many ways and reading Blake’s poems often brings home the knowledge of our ways of crippling ourselves (15-16). To some degree, we live â€Å"in disguise† because we adopt set attitudes and responses. Our world lies hidden from us because we see only what habit and convenience prepare us to find. The Songs of Experience display our minds working this way (45), and this knowledge is unfortunately accompanied by the realization that there is little we can do to change ou...

dual labor market essays

dual labor market essays Even with all the gains women have made on the job market, they will always be a step behind there fellow male coworkers. Women have made significant gains with their numbers in the workforce, but they still fall behind in the their average wages made. There a many major factors for this, but they are all brought about by the dual labor market. Women cannot compete with men on the job market because they do not belong to the same market. It is the belief that an executives secretary should not be making the same amount as the executive. It is felt that because women work jobs that have less impact, that they obviously should be paid less money. It was cited in class that women have begun on a whole to catch up to men in there average wages, now making roughly seventy eight percent of there male counterparts. But this statistic does not break down the actual numbers. When that is done a new truth is brought to light and that is that women have only caught up to men because the men have simply been forced into lower paid jobs. Women are continually given less pay because there are different qualifications for women than men on the job market. As Professor Stokes said, when a man has a picture of his family on his desk he is viewed as a stable man, when a women has a picture on her desk, she is viewed as putting her family first. It is fairly difficult to put women in the same job market as men with thought patterns like that are still around. And because of that women are constantly finding themselves working in a very limited number of jobs. I believe that the crowding theory is a very important factor to why women are having difficulties catching up in the job market. Because women are so clustered in so few jobs, i.e. nursing, sales, receptionist, they are in a sense driving their own wages down. Employers see such an abundance of women available for those jobs there is no need to attract women to them with high wages. But i ...

Product Packaging Analysis Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Product Packaging Analysis Assignment - Essay Example the product originates from high temperature and low humid region, the suitable package for this product is a cylindrical, transparent, container varying in sizes according to quantity inside. The container should be made of plastic and fitted with tight brown plastic lid too. After which, the container should be wrapped with transparent polythene paper. On the half side of the container, on the polythene used for wrapping, there should be nice brown drawings of desert date fruits and underneath the fruit there should be writings in pink stating the nutrient values of the product, it uses, and storage conditions (Sinha 637-641). The remaining half of the package container should be left as transparent as it is so that buyers who have never tested the dates can see exactly how it look like before paying for it. Packaging the desert dates in a transparent cylindrical plastic container fitted with an airtight lid protects the fruits from deformations due to clamping together and dissolution of the fruit’s outer coating by moisture. It also enhances its longer preservation and displays the fruits nicely to attract buyers, which is the ultimate objective of any

Political Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Political Philosophy - Essay Example ers like others in their times thought deeply about the role of the rulers who were at that time Kings and Queens and whether hereditary rights alone are enough to govern. This reflected in their works on property and man’s right to own property as well as the kind of contract that man had with state in such matters. In this paper, I draw upon the works of these three thinkers to assess their contribution to the issue of private property and man’s right to own such property as well as the fact that we might not have such rights at all. These three thinkers represent different bands in the spectrum about the issue and hence their contributions are worth comparing and contrasting to arrive at an understanding of what their views about the issue were. Among all the three thinkers, Locke was the most vocal exponent of man’s right to own property and the role of the state in facilitating such rights. However, Locke’s views were nuanced as far as owning private property was concerned. For instance, Locke held the view that since we are free in our movements and are owners of our bodies, so, any efforts that we put in to â€Å"pour ourselves† into improving natural objects like land must necessarily belong to us as we have invested significant time and energy in making the land worthwhile for human use. The way in which Locke proposed this in The Second Treatise on Government is by alluding to the investment of labor that one does to improve the land for the use by all. To cite Locke, â€Å"The same principle of appropriation by the investment of labor can be extended to control over the surface of the earth as well, on Lockes view. Individuals who pour themselves into the land—improving its productivity by spending their own time and effort on its cultivation—acquire a property interest in the result. (2nd Treatise  §32) The plowed field is worth more than the virgin prairie precisely because I have invested my labor in plowing it; so even if the prairie was